When might an unrepresentative sample be appropriate for a frequency claim?

When targeting a specific type of group in the study.

In reporting means and standard deviations, which of the following is the correct format?

The average rating was 8.5 (SD = 1.44).

In cluster sampling, which of the following steps is correct?

Randomly selecting clusters, & including all individuals in each cluster

A scatter plot is useful for:

Showing the relationship between two variables.

When assessing the precision of an estimate in a correlational study, which of the following is most relevant?

The confidence interval around the correlation coefficient.

Parents are happier than non-parents.

Which of the following is an example of a quantitative-categorical correlation?

Happiness level (1-7 scale) and parenting status (parent vs. non-parent).

A division that splits data into four equal parts.

In correlational research, a p-value helps determine:

How confident we can be that a relationship exists beyond random chance.

Why is external validity often essential for frequency claims?

It ensures that results are generalizable to the population.

Inferential statistics are used primarily to:

Make generalizations about a population based on sample data.

what is construct validity?

How well was each variable measured?

Multiple-regression analysis in multivariate designs helps researchers:

Rule out the impact of third variables on the association between variables

A strong relationship between the two variables.

Which of the following best defines the concept of a sample?

A smaller set of people or things taken from a population

Which of the following is a primary goal of descriptive statistics?

Describing characteristics and summarizing features of a data set.

What is an advantage of a random sample over a biased sample?

It provides data with better external validity.

Autocorrelation refers to:

The correlation of one variable with itself over time.

What does a positively skewed distribution indicate about a data set?

Most scores are low, with a few exceptionally high scores.

Standard deviation measures:

The variability or spread of scores around the mean.

What is an example of a systematic random sample?

Begin with a random starting point and select every nth person thereafter.

Construct validity in correlational research refers to:

How well each variable was measured.

A third variable problem may arise in correlational research when:

An additional variable could explain the observed association.

Which of the following would indicate a curvilinear relationship between two variables?

coefficient close to 0, with scatterplot having upward then downward trend

what is internal validity?

Can we make a causal inference from an association?

In a normal distribution, which of the following is true about the mean, median, and mode?

They are all equal and located at the center of the distribution.

Which of the following describes snowball sampling?

Asking participants to refer others for the study.

A z-score represents:

The distance a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units.

Which of the following scenarios is most likely to use correlational research?

Determining if parental status is associated with higher happiness levels.

In multiple-regression analysis, researchers can only control for:

Variables they have included and measured in the study.

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PS295 Midterm 2

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Questions 69

Answers

1
When might an unrepresentative sample be appropriate for a frequency claim?
When sample size requirements are high.
When the researcher wants to include all population demographics.
When targeting a specific type of group in the study.
When generalizing findings to a broad population.
2
In reporting means and standard deviations, which of the following is the correct format?
The rating average was 8.5 (SD, 1.44).
The average rating was 8.5 (SD = 1.44).
Mean of 8.5 and standard deviation of 1.44.
Average = 8.5 (Standard deviation: 1.44).
3
The following is an example of...
Third-variable problem
Variables
Moderation
Mediation
4
In cluster sampling, which of the following steps is correct?
Selecting only convenient individuals.
Randomly selecting clusters, & including all individuals in each cluster
Choosing one person from each stratum.
Randomly selecting individuals directly from each demographic group.
5
A scatter plot is useful for:
Displaying the distribution of one variable.
Showing the relationship between two variables.
Measuring central tendency.
Indicating the median of a data set.
6
The following is an example of...
Mediation
Third-variable problem
Variables
Moderation
7
When assessing the precision of an estimate in a correlational study, which of the following is most relevant?
The size of the sample only.
The correlation coefficient only.
The range of the data.
The confidence interval around the correlation coefficient.
8
...
Parenting makes people happier.
Parenting directly increases happiness.
Parents are happier than non-parents.
Happiness is caused by parenting.
9
Which of the following is an example of a quantitative-categorical correlation?
Income and years of education.
Height and weight.
Number of hours worked and income.
Happiness level (1-7 scale) and parenting status (parent vs. non-parent).
10
What is quartile?
The highest score in a data set.
A measure of how spread out data points are.
A division that splits data into four equal parts.
A measure of the average score in a data set.
11
In correlational research, a p-value helps determine:
The size of the effect of one variable on another.
How much one variable predicts another.
How strong the relationship is between two variables.
How confident we can be that a relationship exists beyond random chance.
12
Why is external validity often essential for frequency claims?
It ensures that results are generalizable to the population.
It increases the internal reliability of the findings.
It ensures that the results are causally related.
It eliminates all biases in the study.
13
Which measure would be least affected by extremely high or low scores in a data set?
Mode
Range
Mean
Median
14
Which of the following is a predictor variable for the criterion variable of pregnancy risk?
Pregnancy status
Number of siblings
Age
Happiness level
15
Inferential statistics are used primarily to:
Identify the mode of a distribution.
Describe the frequency of observations in a data set.
Make generalizations about a population based on sample data.
Determine the central tendency of data.
16
what is construct validity?
To whom can the association be generalized?
Can we make a causal inference from an association?
How well do the data support the conclusion?
How well was each variable measured?
17
Which of the following is NOT a type of probability sampling?
Multistage Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
18
Multiple-regression analysis in multivariate designs helps researchers:
Establish temporal precedence.
Control for all possible variables affecting the outcome.
Directly establish causation.
Rule out the impact of third variables on the association between variables
19
...
No relationship between the two variables.
A strong relationship between the two variables.
A weak relationship between the two variables.
A moderate relationship between the two variables.
20
what is the following correlation?
Positive correlation
I don't know.
Negative correlation
No correlaion
21
Which of the following best defines the concept of a sample?
A selection process where all individuals have a chance of being selected
A smaller set of people or things taken from a population
The entire set of people or things of interest
A random subset of people from various populations
22
...
Cross-lag correlation.
Autocorrelation.
Bivariate correlation.
Cross-sectional correlation.
23
If beta (β) for age is slightly higher than for exposure to TV in a regression analysis on pregnancy risk, this means:
A
C
D
B
24
...
Cross-leg correlation
Cross-sectional correlation
Autocorrelation
Bivariate correlation
25
Which of the following is a primary goal of descriptive statistics?
Testing hypotheses using experimental methods.
Making inferences from data to predict future outcomes.
Describing characteristics and summarizing features of a data set.
Establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
26
What is an advantage of a random sample over a biased sample?
It includes participants with the highest willingness to respond.
It is easier to collect.
It limits the number of variables in the study.
It provides data with better external validity.
27
Autocorrelation refers to:
The causal relationship between two variables.
The influence of a third variable on the association.
The correlation of one variable with itself over time.
The association between two different variables at the same point in time.
28
What does a positively skewed distribution indicate about a data set?
All scores are evenly distributed.
There is a bell-shaped distribution with no skew.
Most scores are low, with a few exceptionally high scores.
Most scores are high, with a few exceptionally low scores.
29
Standard deviation measures:
The variability or spread of scores around the mean.
The middle score in a data set.
The average score of a data set.
The most frequent score in a data set.
30
what is the following correlation?
Positive correlation
I don't know.
Negative correlation
No correlation
31
What is an example of a systematic random sample?
Begin with a random starting point and select every nth person thereafter.
Randomly select clusters w/ a population & include everyone in the clusters
Identify specific demographics and select people randomly from each.
Use only people who are convenient to contact.
32
The following is an example of..
Variables
Third-variable problem
Moderation
Mediation
33
Construct validity in correlational research refers to:
The sample size used in the research.
The statistical method used to analyze the relationship.
The strength of the relationship between the two variables.
How well each variable was measured.
34
A third variable problem may arise in correlational research when:
One variable is both independent and dependent.
An additional variable could explain the observed association.
There is a strong correlation.
There is no relationship between the two main variables.
35
Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the strongest relationship?
0.2
-0.75
0.5
-0.3
36
What is the sample in the following study...
200
600
13,000
400
37
is p is > 0.5 it is significan
False
True
38
If Scott scored an 89 on a test with a mean of 81.5 and a standard deviation of 4.88, what is his z-score?
-1.53
2.0
0.89
1.53
39
What is the following correlation?
I don't know.
Positive correlation
No correlation
Negative correlation
40
What is the population in the following study...
400
200
13,000
600
41
Which of the following would indicate a curvilinear relationship between two variables?
coefficient close to 0, with scatterplot having upward then downward trend
A correlation coefficient close to ±1.
A straight line on a scatter plot.
A strong negative correlation across all data points.
42
what is internal validity?
To whom can the association be generalized?
How well was each variable measured?
How well do the data support the conclusion?
Can we make a causal inference from an association?
43
Which sampling technique allows for generalization to a population?
Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Purposive Sampling
44
In multivariate research, temporal precedence:
B
A
C
D
45
In a normal distribution, which of the following is true about the mean, median, and mode?
The mean is always higher than the median.
They are all equal and located at the center of the distribution.
The mode is always higher than the mean.
The median is always higher than the mode.
46
Which of the following describes snowball sampling?
Sampling people who are easy to reach.
Asking participants to refer others for the study.
Recruiting participants who volunteer.
Using a random number generator to pick participants.
47
Which method would best represent a population when assessing book prices at a bookstore?
Quota Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
48
A z-score represents:
The frequency of occurrence of a specific score.
The range of scores in a data set.
The total of all scores divided by the number of scores.
The distance a raw score is from the mean in standard deviation units.
49
Which of the following scenarios is most likely to use correlational research?
Testing whether a specific diet causes weight loss.
Investigating the impact of a new drug on blood pressure.
Determining if parental status is associated with higher happiness levels.
Examining the effects of sleep deprivation on memory retention.
50
...
B
D
C
A
51
In multiple-regression analysis, researchers can only control for:
Only the criterion variable.
Variables they have included and measured in the study.
Causal factors.
All potential third variables.
52
...
Moderator variable.
Dependent variable.
Confounding variable.
Independent variable.
53
Correlational research is primarily used to:
Conduct experiments with independent and dependent variables.
Assess the stat. relationship between 2 variables without manipulating them
Manipulate one variable to observe its effect on another
Determine cause-and-effect relationships between two variables.
54
Which of the following statements describes a cross-sectional correlation?
Two variables measured at the same time are correlated.
Early measure is associated with later measure of a different variable
One variable is correlated with itself over time.
Both variables must show hight autocorrelation
55
When interpreting a correlation, outliers:
Are extreme scores that do not impact the correlation.
Always strengthen the relationship between two variables.
Should be removed in all correlational studies.
Can significantly affect the correlation, especially in smaller samples.
56
Longitudinal designs allow researchers to:
Compare variables across different participants.
Determine causation directly without further analysis.
Study variables at one point in time only.
Measure the same variables in the same participants over time.
57
what is statistical validity?
How well do the data support the conclusion?
How well was each variable measured?
Can we make a causal inference from an association?
To whom can the association be generalized?
58
How might you collect a simple random sample?
Probability sampling
Quota sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster and Multistage sampling
59
In bivariate correlations, what types of variables can be included?
Only categorical variables.
Only independent variables.
Quantitative or a mix of quantitative and categorical variables.
Only quantitative variables.
60
Which measure of central tendency represents the most frequently occurring value in a data set?
range
mean
median
mode
61
What is the interquartile range?
The range of the lowest 50% of values.
The range between the 25th and 75th percentiles.
The distance from the mean to the furthest score.
The difference between the highest and lowest scores.
62
...
B
C
A
D
63
what is external validity?
To whom can the association be generalized?
How well do the data support the conclusion?
How well was each variable measured?
Can we make a causal inference from an association?
64
A frequency distribution provides:
The average distance from the mean.
A visual representation of how frequently each value occurs.
A single summary of central tendency.
A calculation of the standard deviation.
65
In a regression analysis, the criterion variable is:
The dependent variable or the main variable of interest.
The independent variable we control for.
A third variable that affects the association.
Another term for a predictor variable.
66
To assess external validity in correlational research, researchers would ask:
How strong the relationship is between the two variables.
If the study has replicated findings.
If the sample size is large enough.
If the findings can generalize to other people, settings, or times.
67
Statistical validity in a correlational study helps us determine:
The precision, strength, and replicability of the relationship.
Whether the sample is representative of the population.
Whether the association generalizes to other contexts.
The causal relationship between two variables.
68
In a regression analysis, if beta (β) is close to 0 for a predictor variable, this indicates:
The variable is the primary cause of the outcome.
A strong negative correlation.
A strong positive correlation.
No significant correlation with the criterion variable.
69
Why is it more important to ask how a sample was collected rather than its size?
A larger sample will always provide more accurate results.
Collection methods impact internal validity.
Sample size doesn’t affect the study’s generalizability.
Proper collection methods ensure representativeness and external validity.

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