Qualitative research is often considered appropriate when:

We know very little about a topic and need exploratory insight.

The probability theory in sampling helps us understand:

The chance or likelihood of a particular sample outcome occurring

Systematic random sampling involves:

Selecting every kth element after a random start

Under the principle of “respect for justice and procedural fairness,” researchers should:

Distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly among participants

Which of the following best captures the relationship between global north and global south in data colonialism?

The global north exploits data from the global south, sustaining inequality

What is Indigenous data sovereignty?

Indigenous peoples’ right to govern their own data.

What is the key distinction between a concept and a conceptual definition?

A concept is broad; a conceptual definition clarifies it.

Which type of research is most concerned with nomothetic approaches?

Quantitative research, seeking general laws or patterns

Sex workers have long claimed what about police protection and investigation of crimes against them?

Police often neglect to protect or investigate crimes against them.

What is a measurement challenge when tracking "crime rates" over time?

Social construction and changing definitions of crime

How can funding sources shape the research process?

By dictating research topics, methodologies, or publication conditions

What form can censorship in research take?

Government/funder pressure to prevent certain findings from being published

What is a literature review primarily used for?

To synthesize, classify, and compare existing scientific knowledge

Under what condition is informed consent generally NOT required?

Observations in public spaces where people have no expectation of privacy

What is considered scientific misconduct?

Fabricating, falsifying, or plagiarizing data

What characterizes “dirty data” in the context of policing?

Data that is missing, corrupt, biased, or unlawfully manipulated by police

Global South criminology seeks to create a new research paradigm by doing which of the following?

Incorporating Indigenous academic sources, power imbalances into analysis

Middle-range theory is valuable in criminal justice research because it:

Links abstract theory to testable behavior propositions.

What must researchers do under TCPS2 when studying humans?

Balance harms and benefits of research and minimize harm

What does “terra nullius” refer to in colonial contexts?

The idea of "empty" land used to justify colonial takeover.

Why is the criminal justice system challenging for women and LGBTQ+ officers?

Traditionally patriarchal, it pressures others to "prove" toughness.

Sampling distribution refers to:

The distribution of multiple samples of a given population parameter

Why might requiring approval for media interviews be considered censorship?

Because it restricts what information can be shared with the public

A dependent variable can be identified as…

The effect/outcome that may change in response to an independent variable

Which of the following describes "tradition" as a source of knowledge?

A body of cumulative knowledge passed down over time

Stratified random sampling involves:

Dividing the population into strata and sampling randomly.

The target population is:

The specific subset of a population that a researcher aims to study

Traditionally, how are the roles of police and the military differentiated?

The military defends against external threats; police ensure domestic order

What is the difference between anonymity and confidentiality in research?

Anon: Researcher does not know; Conf: Researcher knows but won't disclose

Why has there been an increase in media and political attention on police actions in Canada and the US?

Rising awareness of deaths involving police interactions

Which of the following best describes the main focus of qualitative research?

Understanding human lived experiences through rich descriptions

What might lead to a researcher practicing self-censorship?

Pressure to align results with funders' or politicians' interests.

Which of the following correctly identifies a key problem with using legends and myths as knowledge sources?

There is a disconnect between these stories and scientific knowledge

A sample statistic is:

An estimate of a population parameter based on sample data

A subset from a population for conclusions.

Basic research primarily aims to:

Develop knowledge for knowledge’s sake and advance theory

Validity in measurement is about…

Accuracy in measuring what is intended

Colonialism in research often involves what perspective on Indigenous knowledge?

Dismissing and repressing Indigenous knowledge

Indigenous women in Canada experience disproportionately high rates of which of the following?

Family violence, sexual harassment, and victimization

The difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter

If deception is used in research, what is generally required?

Debriefing participants afterward, explaining why deception was used

A simple random sample is:

A probability sample where each element is chosen entirely by chance

What is “datum nullius”?

Indigenous peoples seen as "blank slates" for colonial knowledge.

Which statement best reflects a key assumption of quantitative research?

Reality can be measured and represented by statistical data.

What is the key idea behind “informed consent” in research?

Participants consent after understanding the study's risks and benefits

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2653 Exam Quiz

151 termsStudBud Administration15 plays

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Questions 151

Answers

1
Qualitative research is often considered appropriate when:
We know very little about a topic and need exploratory insight.
We need to generate precise numerical predictions.
We aim to confirm a cause-and-effect relationship.
We want to test an existing theory with large datasets.
2
The probability theory in sampling helps us understand:
The chance or likelihood of a particular sample outcome occurring
How to choose convenient participants
Why qualitative data cannot be sampled
How to eliminate all types of error
3
Systematic random sampling involves:
Choosing the first element you see until the desired sample size is reached
Dividing the population into strata
Selecting every kth element after a random start
Selecting elements based solely on convenience
4
Under the principle of “respect for justice and procedural fairness,” researchers should:
Give benefits only to wealthy participants
Conceal the selection criteria from participants
Select participants based solely on convenience
Distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly among participants
5
Which of the following best captures the relationship between global north and global south in data colonialism?
Data colonialism is unrelated to geographic power imbalances.
The global north and global south equally share data and benefits
The global north exploits data from the global south, sustaining inequality
The global south leads data collection and sets ethics.
6
What is Indigenous data sovereignty?
Indigenous peoples’ right to govern their own data.
Private companies' right to use Indigenous cultural knowledge.
The policy that all data about Indigenous peoples must be made public
Governments' unrestricted right to collect Indigenous data.
7
What is the key distinction between a concept and a conceptual definition?
A concept is quantitative; a conceptual definition is qualitative.
A conceptual definition is abstract; a concept is measurable.
There is no difference; they are synonyms in research
A concept is broad; a conceptual definition clarifies it.
8
Which type of research is most concerned with nomothetic approaches?
Qualitative research, focusing on shared meaning
Qualitative research, focusing on unique cases
Quantitative research, seeking general laws or patterns
Quantitative research, focusing solely on historical events
9
Sex workers have long claimed what about police protection and investigation of crimes against them?
Police often neglect to protect or investigate crimes against them.
Police are overly attentive to their complaints
Police thoroughly investigate all their cases
Police prioritize sex worker safety above all else
10
What is a measurement challenge when tracking "crime rates" over time?
The fact that statistics are always fixed and universal
The researcher’s inability to form a hypothesis
Social construction and changing definitions of crime
The reliability of your calculator
11
How can funding sources shape the research process?
By dictating research topics, methodologies, or publication conditions
By guaranteeing researchers absolute freedom of inquiry
By completely removing time constraints from research
By determining the personal beliefs of the researchers
12
What form can censorship in research take?
Researchers voluntarily sharing all data publicly
Government/funder pressure to prevent certain findings from being published
Increasing the timeline for publication
Encouraging researchers to be as transparent as possible
13
What is a literature review primarily used for?
To directly test a hypothesis with experiments
To collect numerical data for analysis
To synthesize, classify, and compare existing scientific knowledge
To create new theories from scratch without reference to prior work
14
Under what condition is informed consent generally NOT required?
Surveys about income that require identifying information
Interviews with sensitive topics
Experiments involving psychological testing
Observations in public spaces where people have no expectation of privacy
15
What is considered scientific misconduct?
Fabricating, falsifying, or plagiarizing data
Following proper research protocols
Taking careful notes on all data collected
Reporting findings honestly
16
What characterizes “dirty data” in the context of policing?
Data verified and approved by community oversight committees
Data that is missing, corrupt, biased, or unlawfully manipulated by police
Data that has undergone a rigorous ethics review process
Data that is collected ethically and transparently
17
Global South criminology seeks to create a new research paradigm by doing which of the following?
Incorporating Indigenous academic sources, power imbalances into analysis
Rejecting all academic frameworks
Ignoring Indigenous academic sources
Adopting Global North assumptions without critique
18
Middle-range theory is valuable in criminal justice research because it:
Eliminates the need for any theoretical framework
Links abstract theory to testable behavior propositions.
Completely ignores empirical evidence
Focuses only on broad, abstract concepts
19
What must researchers do under TCPS2 when studying humans?
Always prioritize the benefit to the researcher over the participant
Ignore vulnerable populations
Balance harms and benefits of research and minimize harm
Focus only on benefits, ignoring potential harms
20
What does “terra nullius” refer to in colonial contexts?
The idea of "empty" land used to justify colonial takeover.
The idea that land is managed responsibly by Indigenous peoples
A legal principle affirming Indigenous land sovereignty.
Land occupied and governed by Indigenous authorities.
21
What type of reasoning is primarily associated with qualitative research approaches?
Inductive reasoning
Hypothetical reasoning
Deductive reasoning
Algorithmic reasoning
22
A time series study is a type of which broader research design?
Theoretical review
Cross-sectional research
Experimental research
Longitudinal research
23
Why is the criminal justice system challenging for women and LGBTQ+ officers?
It encourages open expression of identity
It is founded on strict gender equality
It has no historical biases
Traditionally patriarchal, it pressures others to "prove" toughness.
24
Sampling distribution refers to:
The frequency distribution of one variable in one sample
The distribution of a single sample’s data
The distribution of multiple samples of a given population parameter
The pattern formed by convenience samples
25
Why might requiring approval for media interviews be considered censorship?
Because it always benefits the transparency of research
Because it increases funding opportunities
Because it ensures complete researcher autonomy
Because it restricts what information can be shared with the public
26
Which worldview assumes an objective social reality discoverable through quantitative methods?
Interpretivism
Social constructionism
Positivism
Pragmatism
27
A dependent variable can be identified as…
The effect/outcome that may change in response to an independent variable
The variable that causes changes in the independent variable
A random factor unrelated to the study
The variable that remains unchanged
28
Which of the following describes "tradition" as a source of knowledge?
A body of cumulative knowledge passed down over time
Knowledge acquired through personal experience without bias
Instinctual truths universally accepted without question
Scientific reasoning that can be tested and replicated
29
Stratified random sampling involves:
Selecting participants who are easiest to reach
Selecting subjects only from a single cluster
Dividing the population into strata and sampling randomly.
Taking every nth individual from a list
30
The target population is:
The population the researcher can never access
The entire human population
A randomly selected set of people unrelated to the research question
The specific subset of a population that a researcher aims to study
31
Traditionally, how are the roles of police and the military differentiated?
The military defends against external threats; police ensure domestic order
Police enforce international law, military enforces local law
No difference: both serve identical functions
Both are meant to deal primarily with internal protests
32
Police responses have historically been too often violent against which group, even when peaceful?
Criminal suspects only
Armed militias
Protestors
Foreign diplomats
33
What is the difference between anonymity and confidentiality in research?
Conf: Researcher does not know; Anon: Researcher knows but won't disclose
Anon: Only researcher knows the identity; Conf: The public knows.
Anon: Researcher does not know; Conf: Researcher knows but won't disclose
They mean the same thing
34
Why has there been an increase in media and political attention on police actions in Canada and the US?
Lower crime rates
Increased public trust
Rising awareness of deaths involving police interactions
More diverse police forces
35
Which of the following best describes the main focus of qualitative research?
Establishing cause-and-effect relationships through experiments
Developing standardized measures for large samples
Testing hypotheses using numerical data
Understanding human lived experiences through rich descriptions
36
What might lead to a researcher practicing self-censorship?
Lack of any political or funding-related pressures
A clear legal guarantee of academic freedom
Encouragement from peer reviewers to present all results honestly
Pressure to align results with funders' or politicians' interests.
37
Which of the following correctly identifies a key problem with using legends and myths as knowledge sources?
There is a disconnect between these stories and scientific knowledge
They systematically follow the scientific method
They are always supported by scientific evidence
They rarely influence cultural beliefs
38
A sample statistic is:
Always equal to the population parameter
A known population parameter
An estimate of a population parameter based on sample data
A method of non-probability sampling
39
A sample is:
An entire population used in a study
A subset from a population for conclusions.
Another term for a census
A characteristic of a population that is always known
40
Basic research primarily aims to:
Develop knowledge for knowledge’s sake and advance theory
Solve immediate practical problems
Increase product sales in a target market
Influence government policies directly
41
Validity in measurement is about…
Using only one type of measure for all concepts
Accuracy in measuring what is intended
Repeating the experiment many times
Consistency over time
42
Colonialism in research often involves what perspective on Indigenous knowledge?
Integrating Indigenous frameworks automatically
Dismissing and repressing Indigenous knowledge
Valuing all forms equally
Recognizing Indigenous knowledge as superior to Western science
43
Indigenous women in Canada experience disproportionately high rates of which of the following?
Equal pay and employment opportunities
Preferential treatment by law enforcement
Overwhelming political representation
Family violence, sexual harassment, and victimization
44
Sampling error is:
The process of dividing populations into strata
The probability of selecting a particular element
A minor inconvenience with no impact on results
The difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter
45
If deception is used in research, what is generally required?
No explanation, deception is always allowed
Debriefing participants afterward, explaining why deception was used
Immediate expulsion of participants who discover the deception
Just telling participants after publication of results
46
A simple random sample is:
Any sample chosen by researcher’s judgment
A probability sample where each element is chosen entirely by chance
A non-probability sample drawn for convenience
A sample that focuses only on specific subgroups
47
What is “datum nullius”?
Indigenous knowledge systems are complete, needing no external input.
A term describing neutral data collection practices
The assumption that Indigenous peoples are data-rich societies
Indigenous peoples seen as "blank slates" for colonial knowledge.
48
In what type of study is data collected from the same sample multiple times over a period?
Thematic review
Panel study
Cross-sectional
Single-case qualitative study
49
Which statement best reflects a key assumption of quantitative research?
Complex phenomena are best captured through narrative descriptions.
Reality can be measured and represented by statistical data.
Understanding emerges from lived experiences and mutual agreement.
There are multiple subjective realities that must be interpreted.
50
Which of the following is a primary principle in the TCPS2?
Respect for human dignity
Respect for marketing campaigns
Respect for government authorities
Respect for research equipment
51
What is the key idea behind “informed consent” in research?
Participants must be given a password to access data
Participants are told the study is fun and easy
Participants consent after understanding the study's risks and benefits
Participants are forced to continue until the study ends
52
What is the relationship between concepts and variables?
Variables provide measurable characteristics of concepts
Concepts are independent, and variables are dependent
Concepts and variables have no direct connection
Concepts are measured directly, while variables remain abstract
53
Colonial powers historically determined which knowledge is considered ‘legitimate’ by doing what?
Granting Indigenous peoples central authority
Equalizing all cultural inputs
Ignoring scientific inquiry altogether
Imposing their own standards and devaluing Indigenous contributions
54
Temporal order in causal reasoning means…
The cause must follow the effect in time
The cause must occur before the effect
The order of events does not matter
The effect must happen simultaneously with the cause
55
The Hub Model, associated with the RTD, involves which kind of approach?
A collaborative approach to aid vulnerable populations.
A non-collaborative approach focused solely on policing
An independent database managed only by health agencies
A system solely for statistical analysis, not intervention.
56
Convenience sampling is characterized by:
Random selection from a complete sampling frame
Systematic selection of every kth element
Stratifying the population before sampling
Using easily accessible participants, ignoring representativeness.
57
What is one reason why political censorship of research can be a serious problem?
It guarantees that only the government’s perspective is disseminated
It allows all research to become more creative and unrestricted
It can prevent important findings from influencing policy decisions
It ensures that the best possible results are always found
58
Which of the following research designs involves collecting data at a single point in time?
Longitudinal research
Panel studies
Cross-sectional research
Cohort studies
59
Ontological considerations in research focus on:
The moral implications of research findings
Statistical methods of hypothesis testing
How knowledge is collected and analyzed
What exists and the nature of social reality itself
60
What does police militarization involve?
Using non-lethal community policing methods
Hiring exclusively retired military personnel
Reducing police presence in neighborhoods
Incorporating military-grade weapons and equipment into domestic policing
61
Applied research in social sciences is designed to:
Generate purely theoretical frameworks
Address specific, real-world problems or inform policy/practice
Only test laboratory-based hypotheses
Have no connection to the real world
62
Overgeneralization refers to:
Generalizing from limited observations.
Believing only what is traditionally accepted
Selectively focusing on evidence that supports a bias
Using a transparent and systematic approach to knowledge
63
According to the Central Limit Theorem:
Non-probability samples are always normally distributed
With infinite samples, the mean's sampling distribution becomes normal.
The sample mean never changes
The population parameter always equals the sample mean
64
How do historical, cultural, and social influences affect the measurement of crime?
They make crime measurement unnecessary
They ensure crime definitions remain the same worldwide
They do not affect measurement at all
They shape and shift the definitions and perceptions of crime
65
What is data colonialism?
When global south countries take data from global north countries
The process of using data strictly for academic research
Colonial-era power imbalances and data exploitation.
The free exchange of data between countries without discrimination
66
Why are criminologists particularly affected by the political context of research?
They rely solely on private donations to conduct studies
Their work is always funded by the police
They are researching a social problem that is often politically sensitive
They must join political parties before beginning any research
67
What is the purpose of a risk-tracking database (RTD) in policing?
To ensure data is only collected from suspects with explicit consent
To eliminate the need for any form of community policing
To publicly share the identity of vulnerable people
Collaborate across agencies to identify and track at-risk individuals.
68
Why is transparency important in scientific knowledge?
It ensures myths and legends are widely accepted
It allows others to understand, scrutinize, and replicate studies
It encourages selective observation
It ensures that only personal experiences count as evidence
69
Which of the following best represents the process of designing a research project?
Choosing a method, reviewing literature, collecting data, analyzing results
Relying solely on personal intuition without systematic review
Immediately starting data analysis before formulating a question
Only reading theoretical texts without data collection
70
What is meant by the "political context of research"?
The financial rewards researchers receive from government agencies
The absence of political influence in academic research
The influence of political forces on all stages of the research process
The requirement that all research must be carried out by politicians
71
The “halo effect” as a distortion of knowledge refers to:
Believing that common sense always leads to truth
Crediting sources for irrelevant traits or prior positives.
Dismissing all evidence that goes against a personal belief
Abruptly ending an investigation because one’s initial guess seems right
72
Systematic sampling error (bias) is:
Always equal to zero
Caused by random fluctuations in samples
Present only in non-probability samples
Caused by analysis errors, resulting in non-representative samples.
73
Some Indigenous groups have their own research review practices to ensure what?
Total prohibition of research
No oversight of external researchers
Special approvals for using photographs, diaries, and archival records
Unrestricted use of all cultural materials
74
Which of the following is NOT required to establish a causal explanation?
Non-spuriousness
Perfect reliability of measurement
Temporal order
Empirical association
75
Probability sampling differs from non-probability sampling in that:
Non-probability sampling requires a sampling frame
Probability sampling does not use random selection
Every population element has a known, non-zero selection chance.
Non-probability sampling always produces representative samples
76
Common sense is based entirely on empirical evidence and rigorous testing.
False
True
77
How did colonial governments historically use census data when entering new territories?
Used census data to surveil and control Indigenous peoples.
They avoided all forms of data collection to respect Indigenous privacy
They collected data only for humanitarian purposes
They gave the Indigenous peoples full control over the data collected
78
What distinguishes scientific knowledge from other forms of knowledge?
It aims solely to confirm tradition and authority
It is identical to common sense
By observation, evidence, reasoning, openness, and acknowledged limits.
It relies on personal experience without empirical observation
79
What does the concept of “eugenics” refer to?
A discredited practice promoting traits through controlled reproduction.
A modern, widely accepted practice of genetic counseling
A method of improving plant genetics only
Encouraging all traits to thrive equally
80
Which level of social reality involves small-scale interactions like victim-offender relationships?
Meso
Macro
Micro
Middle-range
81
What is a key problem with relying on tradition as a form of knowledge?
It is entirely based on scientific evidence and is unbiased
Acceptance or rejection of facts may be influenced by cultural perspectives
Traditions rarely influence people’s cultural perspectives
It often comes with no cultural bias
82
Why are ethics reviews important in Indigenous data research?
They are required only by government agencies, not by communities
They primarily serve as bureaucratic hurdles with no community input
They minimize harm, respect Indigenous sovereignty, and ensure consent.
They ensure data can be used freely for profit
83
Which statement about research funding is TRUE?
Researchers never need to disclose their funding sources
Funders may request to review findings before publication
Universities never fund their own faculty or student research
All research funding is provided by political parties
84
In qualitative research, dependability and trustworthiness focus on…
Consistency and the justifiability of findings grounded in the data
The exact replication of the study’s quantitative results
Completely removing any human interpretation
Ensuring measurement tools are always numerical
85
Which of the following best describes how politicians might influence criminological research?
They have no influence over research whatsoever
Attempt to control or influence how crime is defined studied and measured
They ensure that only non-controversial topics are studied
They keep all funding sources secret from the public
86
Random sampling error is:
An error that results from deliberate bias
An error occurring by chance affecting sample accuracy
Another term for a parameter
An error that can be completely avoided
87
Why is Indigenous data sovereignty needed?
To eliminate all forms of data collection worldwide
To keep data on Indigenous peoples under colonial control.
Combat data colonialism ensuring Indigenous control over their information
To allow anyone to profit from Indigenous cultural knowledge
88
What consequence might occur if funders deny permission to publish research findings?
Researchers can publish freely without consequences
The research is immediately published under a government mandate
The research automatically receives additional funding
Researchers may not be legally able to publish the results
89
An example of an error in causal reasoning is…
Checking for non-spuriousness
Inferring that correlation alone proves causation
Using multiple variables to predict an outcome
Ensuring temporal order in your analysis
90
Common sense is often criticized as a source of knowledge because it:
Requires rigorous testing and validation
Is based on cumulative historical data
Relies too heavily on empirical research
Is frequently grounded in “gut feelings” rather than evidence
91
What is sampling?
The process of combining two different populations
The process of eliminating unwanted data
The process of analyzing entire populations at once
Selecting a subset from a population.
92
Cluster sampling is:
Selecting individual elements by random numbers only
Divide the population into clusters and randomly select clusters or members
Only selecting participants through referrals
A form of non-probability sampling
93
Generalizability is the ability to:
Limit research findings to only one sample
Extend the study’s conclusions to the larger population
Ensure no sampling error is present
Refuse to consider outliers
94
Which of the following best describes "methodological toolbox"?
The variety of methods, measurements/data collection tools researchers use
An online catalog of research theories
A set of standard statistical formulas
The physical storage container for laboratory instruments
95
Which of the following best describes deductive reasoning?
Developing a broad theory from many specific observations
Starting with a general theory and then testing it with specific data
Making random guesses and then looking for data to support them
Moving from specific data points to a general conclusion
96
How does the construction of societal differences relate to power
Differences arise purely from individual choice
They have no influence on who gets privileged in society
Power sets the terms of discourse and creates systemic inequality
They are random and idiosyncratic
97
Quantitative research typically involves what kind of epistemological assumptions?
Interpretive assumptions with multiple truths
Postmodern assumptions without objective reality
Positivistic assumptions that objective reality can be known
Constructivist assumptions focusing on shared meanings
98
Non-spuriousness means that...
The observed relationship is directly caused by a third unmeasured variable
The relationship is accidental and random
Variables are unrelated in time
The variable relationship isn't due to an unrecognized factor.
99
How do legends differ from myths?
Legends are always scientifically verified; myths are never verified
Legends rely on authority, myths rely on common sense
Legends are widely accepted truths; myths remain unproven or false.
Legends are personal experiences; myths are traditions
100
How should researchers handle “confidentiality”?
Ensuring identifying information is not disclosed to unauthorized parties
By guaranteeing no data is collected at all
By using participants’ real names in published reports
By sharing participants’ data with anyone who requests it
101
What is the mission of police in a human-rights-based framework?
Protect order investigate and prevent crimes while upholding human rights
To prioritize political interests over public safety
To dominate communities through force
To remain completely unaccountable to the public
102
Nomothetic approaches aim to find:
Random associations between unrelated variables
Broad generalizations or laws applicable to many cases
Subjective interpretations without generalizing
Unique, case-specific understandings
103
The sampling frame is:
A list of elements from the target population used to create a sample
A type of non-probability sampling method
Another term for the target population
A statistical measure of sampling error
104
Purposive sampling involves:
Dividing the population into clusters first
Using a lottery system to ensure equal probability
Selecting participants based on researcher’s judgment and criteria
Randomly selecting participants from a complete list
105
Population parameters are:
Unknown characteristics of the population estimated from the sample
Factors that do not influence the study
Statistics computed only from qualitative data
Known characteristics of the sample
106
Which of the following is a characteristic of a ratio variable?
It only ranks categories without numerical distance
It lacks a true zero but has equal intervals
It simply names categories without numerical meaning
It has a true zero point and equal intervals between values
107
Which method best measures an intervention's effectiveness?
Qualitative research
Purely descriptive ethnography
Quantitative research
Historical literature review
108
Social constructionism suggests that social reality is:
Strictly determined by biological factors
Best studied through controlled laboratory experiments only
Constructed through shared meanings, language, and social interaction
An objective entity that exists independently of human interpretation
109
What is a potential impact of losing access to data due to political reasons?
Can eliminate the possibility of conducting future research on that topic
Researchers are forced to increase their funding
It leads to immediate recognition and awards
Researchers are free to publish the data without restriction
110
What is a nomothetic explanation?
An explanation focusing on the unique details of a single event
An explanation based entirely on personal experience
An explanation focusing only on moral beliefs
Seeking to identify general laws and patterns in social phenomena
111
Snowball sampling works by:
Systematically selecting participants at regular intervals
Starting with one informant who refers others.
Separating the population into strata and sampling each
Randomly generating participant lists from a computer program
112
What is a key characteristic of the scientific method?
Reliance on authority without questioning
Systematic, transparent procedures to build and test knowledge
Preferring myths to testable hypotheses
Using personal experiences as the ultimate proof
113
Which element of the research process can also be politicized, according to the material?
Only the data analysis phase
Only the data collection phase
The publication stage of research
The personal lives of researchers
114
What has been a result of colonization on Indigenous peoples in Canada’s criminal justice system?
Equal representation among offenders and victims
No measurable impact
Overrepresentation as both victims and offenders
Underrepresentation in official crime statistics
115
Which explanation focuses on a unique event’s historical and social context?
Idiographic
Positivist
Ontological
Nomothetic
116
Personal experience can be problematic as a source of knowledge primarily because it can:
Contain no cultural biases
Always be generalized accurately to everyone
Align perfectly with scientific theories
Distort reality and reduce objectivity
117
What has traditional “Global North” criminology often overlooked?
Northern concerns and stability
Conditions of peace in stable liberal states
Serious socioeconomic problems prevalent in other regions
The global influence of technology on crime
118
How have Indigenous peoples historically approached data collection?
Data preserved through oral histories, pictographs, chants, and songs.
They never collected data in any form
They relied solely on written documents from colonial governments
They allowed outsiders to record their knowledge without restrictions
119
Which scenario would likely require additional ethical safeguards?
Analyzing publicly available census data
Surveying adults about grocery shopping habits
Observing pedestrian traffic in a public park
Conducting research with individuals with limited decision-making capacity
120
Global North criminology tends to focus on what type of offenses?
Global corporate crime
Relatively minor delinquencies in stable societies
Endemic corruption in unstable states
Genocide and mass atrocities
121
What is the primary goal of the scientific method in social research?
To use legends and myths for evidence
To confirm personal biases
To systematically create knowledge based on principles and procedures
To rely on tradition for truth
122
At which level is research on how religious organizations shape marriage ceremonies conducted?
Nomothetic
Meso
Mirco
Macro
123
A ‘failure of human rights’ in policing is often linked to what kind of state actions?
Increasing transparency
Providing community support
Violent, arbitrary, or discriminatory behavior
Reducing police budgets
124
Random selection ensures:
Qualitative data cannot be included
Only the most experienced participants are selected
Every element has an equal, known chance of selection.
Samples are always biased
125
What does it mean to operationalize a concept?
To ensure the concept remains abstract and philosophical
To define it in purely theoretical terms
To choose which statistical software to use
To determine the real-world variables that represent the concept
126
What is “gubernare nullius”?
Indigenous governance is legitimate and deserves respect.
The recognition of Indigenous sovereignty by colonial governments
Portraying Indigenous peoples as lacking governance to justify colonization
A legal principle that protects Indigenous governance systems
127
What does “research fatigue” refer to?
Tiredness researchers feel after data collection
A community's sense of being over-researched with no benefit.
The phenomenon of participants wanting longer studies
An official term for survey completion times
128
A hypothesis is…
A guess made with no prior reasoning
An untested statement about the relationship between two concepts
A proven statement of fact
A perfect measurement tool
129
What is the main characteristic of a pragmatist worldview in research?
Research must be entirely qualitative
Methods are chosen purely for theoretical elegance
A single correct method is always used
Knowledge is viewed as a tool to solve problems, mixing methods when needed
130
EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method) means:
Each element in the frame has an equal and known probability of selection.
Only even-numbered elements are selected
Only one element has a chance of selection
Elements have different, but known probabilities of selection
131
Interpretivism in research emphasizes which of the following?
Objective measurement and strict adherence to the scientific method
Rejecting all forms of evidence-based inquiry
Understanding the subjective meanings and experiences of social actors
The idea that knowledge is a practical tool for solving problems
132
Reliability in measurement refers to…
The diversity of concepts in a single measure
The number of variables used in a study
The extent to which repeated testing yields consistent results
How well a measure captures what it is intended to measure
133
At which level is the long-term impact of capitalism on labor relations studied?
Macro
Micro
Meso
Idiographic
134
A nominal variable differs from an ordinal variable because…
Ordinal variables are always continuous
Ordinal variables have a meaningful order, while nominal variables do not
Nominal variables and ordinal variables both have a true zero point
Nominal variables have a meaningful order, while ordinal variables do not
135
Which of the following is NOT one of the four tendencies that can distort personal experience as a form of knowledge?
Systematic testing
Premature closure
Selective observation
Overgeneralization
136
Criminology was slow to acknowledge that police often exercised which of the following?
Technological oversight
Excessive leniency
Bias and discrimination
Strict neutrality
137
An independent variable is best described as…
The variable that remains constant throughout the study
The variable that causes or predicts changes in another variable
The factor that is influenced by other variables
The outcome or effect variable
138
A literature review can be structured in which of the following ways?
By geographic region or zip code only
Randomly presenting studies without organization
By author’s last name only
Chronologically or thematically
139
What is a key expectation in the relationship between researchers and participants?
Participants must work for the researcher’s institution
Researchers must not report conflicts of interest
Researchers can mislead participants at will
Trust relationship with full disclosure of potential conflicts of interest
140
Why is there a broad lack of understanding regarding Indigenous traditions and historical abuses?
Complete archival records are easily accessible
Indigenous communities have refused to share information
Colonial narratives dominate and overshadow Indigenous histories
Excessive coverage in mainstream education
141
A control variable is used to…
Replace the independent variable
Stay constant to reduce spuriousness and address alternatives.
Introduce more variability into the study
Act as a second dependent variable
142
What does it mean that the administration of crime and justice is inherently political?
It never changes over time.
It may reflect certain societal and political interests and biases.
It is free from any external influence.
It is always unbiased.
143
Which of the following best describes “ideology”?
Moral beliefs and partial explanations supporting specific positions
A body of knowledge tested rigorously through experiments
A systematic set of statements based solely on empirical evidence
A statistical approach to predicting behavior
144
How does a “theory” differ from an ideology?
Theories never seek to explain or predict phenomena
Theories are based on arbitrary beliefs alone
Theories are always linked to moral judgments
Theories rely on empirical evidence and logical reasoning
145
Scientific knowledge is provisional, meaning that scientists acknowledge limitations and remain open to new evidence.
True
False
146
When did criminologists begin paying more attention to human rights issues?
2000s
1800s
1900s
1700s
147
Which of the following best defines “minimal risk” in research?
Research where only physical harm is possible
Research that uses no human subjects
Research involving harms that are no greater than those in daily life.
Research with no possible harm
148
Which statement best defines an operational definition?
A list of every possible measurement tool for a concept
A synonym for a hypothesis
A set of criteria used to empirically measure a concept
A vague and general description of a concept’s meaning
149
Representativeness refers to:
The total number of elements in a population
How much the sample mirrors or matches the population characteristics
The type of statistical test used
The level of convenience in selecting participants
150
“Respect for vulnerable persons” involves:
Refusing to work with any group that might be at risk
Ignoring any additional safeguards
Protecting those with limited autonomy or capacity.
Using deception to test vulnerability
151
Composite measures like indexes and scales are used when…
Multiple indicators are needed to represent a concept more fully
You can fully capture a concept with just one variable
The concept is too simple to require more than one measure
You have only nominal variables

2653 Exam Quiz Flashcards | StudBud